The current Fifth Republic is the legacy of the four preceding republics: the First (1792-1804), associated with the historic Revolution of 1789; the Second (1848-1852), emerged from the unrest in 1848 but was soon ended by a coup initiated by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte; the Third Republic (1875-1940), created after the years of the Paris Commune and ending with occupation by the Nazis; the Fourth Republic (1946-1958), created after WWII, lasted until the serious crisis resulting from the war in Algeria.
In 1958, the threat of a military coup following the Algerian crisis encouraged the political powers to offer full powers to General Charles de Gaulle. De Gaulle held a referendum (28 September 1958) to approve a new Constitution and became head of state (21 December 1958). Since then, the presidency has alternated between Gaullists and socialists, before coming to Emmanuel Macron (2017-), who redefined strong political balances.
Following the approval of the territorial reorder plan (2016), as from 2020 the French Republic is formed by 96 Departments of Metropolitan France, 21 Metropolises (2 of which, Grand Paris and Aix-Marseille are by special statute) and 13 Regions (prior to the reform, which increased their powers and size, there were 22). It also includes overseas departments, territories and collectivities (DROM-COM): 5 departments and regions (DROM, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion and Mayotte), 5 collectivities (COM, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna, French Polynesia, Saint-Martin and Saint-Barthélemy), as well as New Caledonia, which enjoys a special statute, the overseas territory (TOM) of the Southern and Antarctic Lands and Clipperton Island. Mayotte (since 2011), French Guiana and Martinique (since 2015), and Corsica (since 2019) are unique territorial collectivities, which exercise the competencies of the region and department.
According to the 1958 Constitution (which has been altered several times), the President of the Republic is elected by direct universal suffrage for five years (according to the reform of 2009, he or she can be re-elected only once); the President presides over the Council of Ministers, appoints the Prime Minister and, on the latter’s advice, his ministers. It is a semi-presidential system and the government must be approved by the parliament. Parliament can also influence the appointment and the programme of the Prime Minister. Before the reform of the presidential mandate, reducing it to five years (in 2000) and before legislative elections were held at the same time as presidential elections, the system led several times to a President of the Republic having to “co-habit” with a prime Minister who was of a very different political majority.
Parliament is made up of two chambers. The National Assembly has 577 members representing Metropolitan France and DROM-COM-TOMs, being elected for five years under a single-member majority system with two rounds of voting.
The Senate has 336 members who represent Metropolitan France and DROM-COM-TOMs (elected for six years, half of whom are renewed every three years) plus 12 members representing French citizens abroad, the Assemblée des Français de l’étranger (AFE).

Defence.
There are three armed forces (army, navy and air force) plus the Gendarmerie, a military police force with the role of maintaining public order; they are completely professional since 2001.
In 2019, a Space Command within the air force was founded. In 2020, France and Germany signed a deal to develop a new fighter jet prototype. France supports NATO as a political ally, but between 1966 and 2009 it did not participate in any combined military operation. The new multi-year military budget (2019-2025) includes a major increase in military spending, which aims to reach and maintain the spending objective required for NATO member countries (2% of the GDP).

Justice.
The judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Codes. In 1994, a new penal code came into force (replacing the code of 1810). The system includes 164 judicial courts (created in 2020), 155 juvenile courts, 210 labour courts and 136 business courts; in the second instance there are 36 courts of appeal and a final appeal may be made before the Court of Cassation for matters of form and procedure. Same-sex marriage was made legal in 2013. Homosexual couples are also allowed to adopt.

Population by age and gender (% - 2020)
	75+ 60-74 45-59 30-44 15-29 0-14
MALE	AGE	FEMALE

There are many foreign residents, especially from North Africa (Moroccans, Algerians and Tunisians), but also Portuguese, Italians, Spaniards, Chinese and Turks.
The law on nationality, in force since 1997, has made it automatic (on reaching the age of 18) for people born on French soil of foreign parents to acquire French citizenship, provided they have lived in France for at least five years. The 2018 reform of asylum and immigration rights reduced the times for examining migrant applications, increased times for detaining illegal aliens and simplified the procedures for deporting those with no right to stay in the country. At the same time, the law included an increase from 1 to 4 years for the duration of permits for subsidiary protection given to refugees.

Economic situation.
The strict pandemic restrictions had a major impact on the French economy, whose GDP fell by 8.2% in 2020. The GDP is expected to grow by 5.8% in 2021. The exceptional measures to boost the economy resulted in a 2020 deficit that accounts for 9.2% of the GDP.

Primary sector
Agriculture.
France is the largest agricultural producer in the EU and one of the largest exporters of foodstuffs. A large part of the cultivated land is used to grow cereals: mainly wheat and oats, but also barley, rye, maize, rice (mainly in the Camargue) and sorghum; other important crops include potatoes, vegetables and fruit.
France is one of the world’s main producers of wine. There are five great vine-growing areas: Champagne (sparkling wines), the Middle and Lower Loire, the south-west (Bordeaux and Médoc), the East (Burgundy) and the Mediterranean Midi. Cognac and Armagnac are famous for their brandies; liqueurs are made in Bordeaux, Paris (digestifs), Fécamp (bénédictine) and Isère (chartreuse). The main industrial crop is sugar beet; minor crops include flax and tobacco.
Forests.
Timber production plays an important role in the economy. Cork-oak production is common in Provence, Gascony, Languedoc and southern Corsica.
Livestock.
Livestock farming contributes about one third of the income in the primary sector, with large numbers of beef and dairy cattle, pigs, rabbits and poultry. French cheeses are world famous and are exported widely.
Fishing.
French fishing numbers nearly 7800 boats and provides employment for about 13 500 people. The main port is Boulogne. The south Breton coast supply mainly sardines and shellfish. Fécamp, Saint-Malo and Dunkirk are equipped to fish cod off the coasts of Iceland, Newfoundland and Greenland. Oysters come from Arcachon, La Tremblade, Marennes and Cancale. Fishing provides the raw materials for a sizeable fish-processing industry: sardines, salted herring (Dunkirk), anchovies (Collioure and Marseille), tuna fish (Nantes) and anchovy fillets.

Secondary sector
Minerals.
The last coal mine (at Creutzwald, in the Moselle) was closed down in 2004. The deposits in Lorraine and Nord have also been inactive for many years. Hydrocarbons are extracted in only rather limited quantities: oil is extracted in Alsace, in south-west France and in the Paris Basin; natural gas is extracted at Lacq, Meillon-Saint-Faust, Saint-Marcet and Boulogne-sur-Gesse.
France imports almost all of the natural gas consumed. Various interconnectors with Belgium, Germany, Switzerland and Spain are active. The South European Pipeline system starts at the oil terminal in the Rhône estuary and runs through Strasbourg to Karlsruhe in Germany. Once important, uranium mining ceased in 2001; today, the material is primarily imported from Canada and Niger, where France enjoys privileged access thanks to its colonial past.
Bauxite was discovered in 1822 in southern France, near Les Baux-de-Provence, where the name of the mineral comes from: in 1991 mining was completely stopped due to the exhaustion of resource. Today the contribution of the mineral industry to the economy is small. Salt, gypsum, kaolin, granite and dolomite are mined.
Energy.
France is among the largest net exporter of energy due to its low generation costs and investment in nuclear technology. About 70% of the electricity produced is nuclear, followed by fossil energy sources (coal and natural gas) and by renewable energy sources, the latter of which are constantly growing. During 2018 the government launched a multi-year closure plan for some reactors, with the aim of lowering the share of energy from nuclear power to 50% by 2035.
There are 56 reactors in operation across 18 power plants: Belleville, Blayais, Bugey, Cattenom, Chinon, Chooz, Civaux, Cruas, Dampierre, Flamanville, Golfech, Gravelines, Nogent, Paluel, Penly, Saint-Alban, Saint-Laurent-des-Eaux and Tricastin. The additional reactor in Flamanville, under construction since 2007, has been subject to lengthy delays which led to a serious increase in costs. In 2020, the assembly of an experimental fusion reactor ITER began in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, as part of an international project involving the EU, China, the USA, Russia and India.
Affected in recent years by floods and record-breaking heat waves, France aims to recover its leading role in the fight against climate change and invest more in renewable energy. Plans were approved to close all its coal plants by 2022, bring the percentage of renewable energy production to 40% by 2030 and, in general, drastically cut greenhouse gas emissions over the next few decades.
Industry.
The economic crisis had the effect of reducing the number of businesses and employees in the traditional sectors of industry and a progressive conversion of investments and job openings towards the environment, energy and digital transition sectors.
The principal iron and steel industry has historically developed in the large Lorraine basin; the northern and central area follow, respectively, in order of importance. Large coke-producing plants are located in Lorraine, and in Nord. Aluminium is produced especially in the Alpine areas; the alumina required comes from workshops on the national territory. Other products include copper, lead, zinc, cadmium, magnesium and tin. Oil refineries are in operation in the lower reaches of the Seine, in Normandy and in the estuary of the Rhône. Regasification terminals are located in Montoir-de-Bretagne, Fos Tonkin, Fos Cavaou and Dunkirk.
The chemical industry remains a constant component of the economy, and is among the most important for added value and export. The primary chemical industries are largely concentrated on the outskirts of Paris and Lyon and in the Nord region. The Rhône Alpes region produces the highest amount of chemical products. Normandy is the top producer of fertilizers, additives for fuel and plastic materials. Picardy is the leader in international chemicals, the cosmetic industry and perfumeries; it is comprised of small and medium businesses specialised in products with a high turnover. The main chemicals produced include ammonia, nitric acid, phosphate and nitrogenous fertilizers, chlorine. France also produces plastics and resins: polyvinyl chloride or PVC, polyethylene and polystyrene. Other important chemical products include dyes, pharmaceuticals and perfumery products. Cement factories are widespread in the whole country.
Despite the economic crisis after 2008 and the closure of several plants, the engineering industry remains highly developed in the railway construction, automotive, ship-building, aeronautical, and agricultural and textile machinery segments. The greatest industrial concentrations of this kind are located around Paris and Lyon, where there are also plants manufacturing weapons, aeronautical components and textile machinery. Locomotives and railway carriages are produced in the east and north, also textile machinery. Some large plants of the aeronautical industry are located near Paris, at Toulouse (home of the Airbus company) and Bordeaux. Shipyards are located at Saint-Nazaire, La Ciotat, Dunkirk, La Seyne, Nantes, La Rochelle and Le Havre.
In 2019, the European Commission rejected the merger between the French Alstom and German Siemens owing to competition in the railway mechanics sector. On the contrary, in 2020, Alstom’s bid to take over parts of Bombardier Transportation was given the go-ahead. France and Germany are pushing for reforms to EU regulations in order to nurture industrial powerhouses in Europe.
The automotive industry is sizeable, employing 229 000 people (7% of the industrial workforce). In 2020, the production of new cars collapsed to 927 718 vehicles (-44.3% on 2019). Its major production plants are located around Paris, in Franche Comté, Rhône-Alpes, Brittany (Rennes), Maine (Le Mans), Normandy (Cléon, Sandouville and Caen) and in the Nord region, but many factories are facing closure. The sector also had to face the negative events concerning the historic brand Renault, after the failure of its merger with FCA in 2018, which instead turned to PSA (Peugeot) for the birth of a new group, Stellantis.
The textile and clothing industries play a primary role in exports, with areas dedicated to the manufacture of wool, silk and linen. Artificial and synthetic textile fibres are made in factories concentrated in the south-east of the country; there are other synthetic textile plants around Paris, in Normandy, in the north and also at Albi, Valence and Besançon. The leather industry is widespread. Some regions and towns stand out for the quantity and excellence of their products (shoes, gloves, travelling accessories, made mainly in Paris). Paper, glass and tobacco manufacturing plants are also active, as are sugar refineries.
Other particularly famous products include porcelain from Sèvres and Limoges; mirrors and crystal from Baccarat, Nancy, Saint-Louis-les-Bitche, Wingen-sur-Moder, Choisy-le-Roi, Vitry-sur-Seine, Bayel, Fains and Bordeaux; and clocks and watches from Besançon. The sectors of fashion and luxury items play a major role, with investments all over the world.

Tertiary sector
Foreign trade.
The country, still in trade deficit, imports principally raw materials, semi-finished products and vehicles, but exports a great deal of farm produce, foodstuffs and manufactured products, especially hi-tech goods.
Fifteen commercial agreements with China were signed on 25 March 2019, without, however, joining the Belt and Road Initiative.

Main exports (M US$ - 2017)
machinery 60 726, aircraft and parts thereof 51 630, electrical and electronic equipment and appliances 41 779, pharmaceuticals 31 358, vehicles and parts thereof 28 714, chemicals 26 799, iron and steel 22 504, cars 22 112, plastics 21 393, cosmetics and perfumes 17 761, orthopaedic/electro-medical apparatus and precision instruments 15 875, cereals 10 865, apparel and accessories 10 718, wine 10 320, petroleum products 9 024, jewels and precious stones 7 962, spirits and non-alcoholic beverages 7 847, leather goods 7 460, cheese and dairy products 6 815, tyres and rubber articles 6 478, paper and paperboard 6 320, cereals 5 576, aluminium 5 336

Financeand banking.

The Paris stock exchange is part of the NYSE Euronext Group.
The banking system, which is highly diversified and efficient, owns some of Europe’s largest banks. Tensions arose with the USA regarding the approval of a tax on digital services by web giants, leading the USA to threaten sanctions on French exports.
Paris has subsequently postponed the collection of the tax until an agreement is drawn up.

Tourism. France is the world’s most popular holiday destination. Paris is the top attraction; other key attractions include the seaside resorts of the Côte d’Azur (such as Nice, Cannes and Antibes), the ski resorts of Haute-Savoie (Val Thorens and Chamonix), the Camargue, the chateaux of the Loire, the pretty villages of Normandy and Brittany and the Disneyland Resort, the theme park near Paris. Most tourists come from the European Union and the US, although there has been an increase in visitors from the emerging markets (pre-COVID-19 situation).

Transport.
The road network is particularly complex around Paris and along the main Paris-Lyon-Marseilles motorway. The railway network includes high-speed train (TGV) services connecting the main urban centres; connections with other European high-speed networks are linking the country with Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Spain.
In June 2018, Parliament approved a radical reform project for the railway system, which will gradually bring an end to SNCF’s monopoly, paving the way for competition, and will modernize employment contracts for railway workers. The reform was opposed by the unions. A railway line that runs under the English Channel has been operating since 1994, connecting France to the United Kingdom. Paris, with its two main airports of Roissy (CDG) and Orly, is the second-largest air hub in Europe (after London) and one of the largest in the world.

Media and telecommunication.
The telecommunication sector is highly developed, technologically advanced and one of the most dynamic and competitive in the nation’s economy. Mobile telephone and connectivity services are among the most efficient in Europe and are provided by major companies that are competitive and active in international markets.
The infrastructure offering internet and telephone connectivity is extensive, allowing for the market to develop innovative services that favour consumers and businesses. Television services, watched over by the Conseil supérieur de l’audiovisuel (CSA), include public channels (France Télévisions group) and various private channels.

Education, culture & research.
Since 2016 France has been divided into 17 academic regions, which group together the scholastic districts (Academies) responsible for primary, secondary and higher education at a local level, aiming to guarantee coherence in matters of regional jurisdiction. In 2004, a new law on secularity came into force, which bans religious symbols in state schools.
Education is compulsory and free from 6 to 16 years of age. Primary education lasts for five years and is followed by the first cycle of secondary teaching, which lasts for four years. Upper secondary school (for pupils aged between 15 and 18 who intend to continue their studies) is based around two key options: lengthy general or professional courses (three years) and shorter professional-type (commercial, industrial, administrative) courses (lasting between one and three years). There are three levels of university education: the Diplôme d’études universitaires (for which two more years of study are required), the Licence (three years), and the Maîtrise (four years).
In the spring of 2018, Parliament approved a controversial reform (Loi Vidal) that established limited enrolment at universities. In 2019, the closure of the ENA was announced, the grande école where many of France’s top executives traditionally study.

Social security.
The social welfare system covers illness, unemployment, maternity, invalidity, dependant family allowance and retirement pensions.
The 2019 attempt at pension reform, which aimed at rationalising the 42 different social security schemes currently in existence, was fiercely resisted. The reform was temporarily frozen in March 2020 due to the economic crisis resulting from the pandemic.

Health.
95% of doctors work for the national healthcare service, which reimburses the partial or total cost of medical expenses. Since 2018, early childhood vaccines recommended by the health authorities have been made mandatory.