A British protectorate from 1879, Afghanistan declared independence in 1919. It achieved a certain amount of political and institutional stability under the constitution issued during the reign of Zahir Shah in 1933. In 1973, the king was deposed and a republic was proclaimed. In 1978, a coup installed a Communist regime, supported by Soviet forces. Guerrilla warfare soon developed against the regime, supported by the USA and Pakistan. In 1989, the Soviet army withdrew and the regime lasted until 1992.
In 1996, the Taliban fundamentalist militia group occupied Kābul and installed Islamic Law (sharia), transforming the republic into an Islamic emirate (26 October 1997). The main opposition forces formed the Northern Alliance, under the command of the Tajik leader Ahmad Shah Massoud (later assassinated on 9 September 2001), gaining control of some areas but without conquering the capital.
The political scenario changed in 2001 following the Taliban government’s refusal to hand over Osama Bin Laden, the Saudi leader of Al Qaeda, accused of having planned the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 in New York and Washington. The armed forces of the USA, together with NATO allies, intervened leading to a rapid fall of the regime and occupying the country through the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), under NATO command since 2003. Although vast areas of the country are under Taliban control, the ISAF mission ended in late 2014, and NATO troops were reduced. The US continues to lend air support to government forces. The situation has been made more complex by policies, often conflicting, of other countries with interests in the area, particularly Pakistan, Russia and China, and by the activity of the fundamentalist group “Islamic State” responsible for serious attacks.
According to the 2004 Constitution, Afghanistan is a presidential Islamic Republic with freedom of worship for all religions. The President, who is elected directly on a five-year mandate, can only be re-elected once. Parliament comprises the House of Elders (102 members, one third of whom are elected by district councils to serve for three years, one third by provincial councils to serve for four years, and one third appointed by the President to serve for five years) and the House of the People (up to 250 members elected by direct suffrage for five-years; two seats in each province are reserved for women). The Supreme Court has nine judges (mostly mullahs) who are appointed by the President; most of the trials are entrusted to the Council of Elders, who decide each case according to tribal traditions.

Population by age and gender (% - 2020)
	75+ 60-74 45-59 30-44 15-29 0-14
MALE	AGE	FEMALE

The number of refugees remains high, fleeing the provinces at war, increasing further after the takeover by the Taliban in August 2021.

The war and widespread corruption hinder any economic development, apart from illegal sectors such as the cultivation and smuggling of opium poppies. The economy remains deeply reliant on international aid. The arable land is cultivated with cereals, fruit (grapes and almonds) and vegetables, but the most profitable crop is opium poppy; cannabis is also relevant. Livestock farming is practised (cattle and Karakul sheep).
There are coal and copper deposits, oil and natural gas reserves; a 120-km gas pipeline runs from Mazar-e Sharif to the Uzbek border. There are emerald mines in the Panjshir valley. The country also possesses impressive reserves of rare earths, which have not been used as of yet. The few industrial areas have been destroyed by the war. A few craft activities (carpets) are still practised. Exports are mainly directed to India, Pakistan and China.